Library

The era of Tang Yao and Yu Shun is considered relatively early. The books from the time of Tang Yao and Yu Shun amount to only a few hundred characters. Yet, how can the books attributed to Huang Di (Yellow Emperor) reach tens of millions of characters? Moreover, the matters concerning the utility for the people in earlier times were all established by sages before the Five Emperors. Why is it that while other affairs have no documents to verify them, only the books on treating diseases are detailed and exhaustive to such an extent? Furthermore, the *Nei Jing* (Inner Canon, Internal Classic) exhibits a literary style that is firm and steep, resembling the works of the Pre-Qin philosophers; its principles are broad and profound, very much like those of *Guanzi* and *Xunzi*; its vocabulary is simple yet profound, similar to *Guiguzi*. If this were not a work from the Qin period, what else could it be? Some might say: This person possesses such scholarship; why did he not sign his own name but instead falsely attribute it to ancient figures? The answer is: Just as with the *Zhu Shu* (Bamboo Annals) excavated from the Ji tomb and the *Yue Jue Shu*, these individuals only sought for their books to be transmitted, without needing their names to be prominent. This still reflects the simplicity of earlier generations. If modern people, seeing nothing, would arrogantly place themselves among the authors. (From *Qingfu Tang Ji*)

Hang Shijun said: Li Zhu asked: Huang Di consulted with Qi Bo to compose the *Nei Jing*. Is the current *Nei Jing* indeed the book from that year, or is it recorded by later generations? He answered: The *Nei Jing* already existed when Liu Xiang compiled the *Qi Lu* (Seven Records). During the burning of poetry and history books by Qin Shi Huang, the *Nei Jing* likely survived because it belonged to the category of Fangshu (techniques and arts). The book is profound and precise, not something that later generations could forge or falsely attribute. (From *Zhi Yi*)

Wei Litong said: The writings of Xuanyuan (Huang Di) and Qi Bo are similar to those composed during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, but falsely attributed to antiquity. The text follows the meaning smoothly and is rich in grace, with coherent chapters. Reading it feels exactly like reading the *Li Jing* (Classic of Rites). (Preface to *Shanghan Lun Benyi*)

Zhang Zhicong said: The San Fen Wu Dian (Three Fens and Five Dians) are books recorded by historians. They first expound the subtleties of principles, then narrate the consultations between rulers and ministers. The original intent was to make this Dao clear and eternal, carved in metal and stone. Therefore, its language may involve elaboration. As for the separation and union, flourishing and decline of Yin and Yang, and the generation, origin, entry, and exit of Blood and Qi, how could spiritual wisdom penetrate through walls?

He also said: The principles of Yin and Yang, discussed and listed, ultimately return to One. By deducing and counting them, they can be ten thousand or a thousand. Thus, the meaning of the entire scripture sometimes shows differences within similarities, and sometimes sees similarities within differences. The words may seem contradictory, but the principles fit perfectly without conflict.

Feng Shu said: The *Su Wen* (Basic Questions) is rhymed throughout. (From *Shiji Kuangmiu*)

The *Brief Catalog of the Complete Library of the Four Treasuries* states: The original *Huangdi Suwen* was incomplete. Wang Bing collected the *Yin Yang Da Lun* (Great Treatise on Yin and Yang) to supplement it. Although the claim that this book originated in antiquity is certainly not certain, it must have been transmitted by people from the Zhou or Qin periods, recording old knowledge on bamboo and silk. Thus, it integrates the Three Powers (Heaven, Earth, Human), encompasses myriad changes, and even scholars like Zhang Ji, Li Gao, Liu Wansu, and Zhu Zhenheng, who studied and admired it all their lives, could never fully exhaust its profundity. Han Yue stated: Before the Qin and Han dynasties, there were theories but no prescriptions. Therefore, the various *Nei Jing* texts are serious and detailed, containing many statements attached or mixed together over generations. (From *YiTong*)

Liu Kui said: The *Nei Jing* is mostly falsely attributed by later generations, which can be seen from its writing. For instance, the *Shangshu* (Book of Documents) starts from Tang Yao and Yu Shun, and its language is tortuous and cumbersome, impossible to understand quickly without annotations. If the *Nei Jing* were truly from the time of Huang Di, its archaic and profound language would be incomprehensible. Observing its brushwork, half resembles the texts of the Qin and Han dynasties, proving it is largely a later fabrication. Moreover, after numerous wars, errors in bamboo slips and textual corruptions were inevitable. Mencius only took two or three slips from the *Wucheng* chapter; how much more so for others? (From *Wenyi Lun Leibian*)

Yao Jiheng said: The *Han Shu · Yiwenzhi* records eighteen volumes of *Huangdi Nei Jing*. The *Sui Shu · Jingjizhi* first mentions nine volumes of *Huangdi Suwen*. Wang Bing of the Tang Dynasty annotated it. Wang Bing reasoned that since the *Han Shu* mentioned eighteen volumes of *Nei Jing*, he combined the nine volumes of *Suwen* and nine volumes of *Lingshu* to equal eighteen, which was actually an apocryphal connection. Therefore, later generations linking *Suwen* to *Nei Jing* is incorrect. It is possible that later generations obtained the *Nei Jing* and expanded its theories into the *Suwen*. The name *Suwen* is hard to grasp immediately. I examined the *Yin-Yang* school in the *Han Shu · Yiwenzhi*, which lists *Huangdi Taisu* (Yellow Emperor's Great Simplicity). This likely took the character "Su" (Simple/Pure). Since it involves questions and answers with Qi Bo, it is called *Suwen*. This book is revered by later generations as the ancestor of medical schools. However, its statements are often forced interpretations. To claim it is a dialogue between Huang Di and Qi Bo is absurd. Whether referring to the *Suwen* in the *Sui Shu* or the *Huangdi Neiwai Jing* in the *Han Shu*, both are based on false attribution. The same applies to Shennong, Xuanyuan, Feng Hou, Limu, etc. Did these books really exist? Some argue that the phrase "losing marquises and kings" implies the Qin destruction of six states and the Han abolition of vassal kingdoms. However, the text mentions "Qianshou" (commoners) and uses terms like midnight, dawn, sunrise, noon, afternoon, and dusk, without mentioning the twelve earthly branches, suggesting it was written by Qin people. Yet, it also mentions Jiazi years and Yin hours, indicating Han dynasty authorship. Thus, the content has both ancient and recent elements, and cannot be generalized. (From *Gujin Weishu Kao*)

He Mengyao said: Ancients claimed the *Nei Jing* was not written by Qi Bo and Huang Di, but falsely attributed by later generations. It was likely not produced by a single hand, hence containing both pure and flawed parts, which should be viewed separately. (From *Yi Bian*)

Xue Xue said: History records that Huang Di wrote the *Nei Jing*, but the original book is lost. It is unknown which generation of medical experts fabricated the dialogue format to compile the *Suwen* and *Lingshu* for transmission. They likely heard accounts from elders and elaborated upon them. Although the text has many gaps, it is an immortal work. Its purpose seems to mimic ancient wall-library texts, hence the verbose language. However, it lacks the elegance of ancient rituals. At that time, Da Nao had just invented the Jiazi system; the calendar and astrological methods did not match today's. Sweet wine causing death was detested by Yu the Great; who would prefer bland water as a drink, leading to full meridians and empty collaterals, floating liver, and horizontal gallbladder? Regarding the pairing of twelve meridians with twelve rivers, the earth was not yet stabilized then, so how could the Jiang, Huai, Yellow, and Ji rivers' boundaries match later eras? Such loopholes are numerous. (Introduction to *Yijing Yuanzhi*)

Note: My late father said: The *Han Shu · Yiwenzhi* records eighteen volumes of *Huangdi Nei Jing* and thirty-seven volumes of *Wai Jing*, along with titles for Bai Shi and Bian Que's *Nei Wai Jing*. "Nei" (Internal) and "Wai" (External) are merely sequential designations, like the inner and outer hexagrams of the *I Ching*, or internal and external commentaries of the *Spring and Autumn Annals*, and do not imply deep meaning. Various explanations for "Nei" are inconsistent and should not be followed blindly. Regarding the name *Suwen*, Lin Yi et al. correctly identified it as asking about the meaning of "Taisu" (Great Simplicity). In the *Shiji · Yin Benji*, Yi Yin accompanied Tang and spoke of the "Su Wang" (Plain King) and Nine Masters. Sima Zhen's commentary explains: The Plain King refers to the Great Simplicity Supreme Sovereign, whose way is plain and simple. *Liezi* also states: Taisu is the beginning of substance. The *Han Shu · Yiwenzhi* lists twenty chapters of *Huangdi Taisu*. Liu Xiang's *Bielu* says it discusses Yin-Yang and Five Elements as the Way of Huang Di, hence called Taisu. *Suwen* is thus the Q&A of Taisu. The reason it is called *Suwen* rather than *Wen Su* is like Qu Yuan's *Tianwen* (Heavenly Questions), using inverted syntax. Quan Yuanqi's explanation was unclear. Wu Kun et al. thought it meant daily inquiry. Chao Gongwu's *Dushu Zhi* suggested it means recording Huang Di's questions simply, which is speculative. The claims in *Yunji Qiqian* and *Shenxian Tongjian* that the Goddess Su descended to teach Huang Di medicine are extremely absurd. The title *Nei Jing* appears in the *Han Shu · Yiwenzhi*, while *Suwen* appears in Zhang Zhongjing's preface to *Shanghan Lun*. The identification of *Suwen* and *Lingshu* as *Nei Jing* comes from Huang Fumi's preface to *Jiuzhen Jiayi Jing*. Later generations accepted this. Hu Yinglin argued that *Suwen* is now called *Nei Jing* because the *Sui Shu* only named it *Suwen*, implying the original fifty-five volumes of *Huangdi Neiwai Jing* were lost in the Six Dynasties, and later editors renamed the compiled fragments. This is reasonable. Since Jin was close to Han, Huang Fumi's preface might reflect traditional views. Volume 7 was lost in Jin. According to Lin Yi, Quan Yuanqi's version lacked Volume 7. Wang Bing supplemented seven chapters from old collections, differing from the rest of *Suwen*. His discussion on Yunqi (Luck/Qi movement) differs significantly from the *Liujie Zangxiang Lun*. Lin Yi attributed this to the *Yin Yang Da Lun*, but Wang Shuhe's citations do not show this, making Lin's view difficult to accept. The chapter arrangement in Wang Bing's version (81 chapters) imitates the *Daodejing* and *Nanjing*. This book is the oldest medical classic, preserving sage teachings. Since Huang Fumi, physicians have attributed it to Qi Bo and Huang Di, which is incorrect. Medical discussion of Yin-Yang is ancient. Zhuangzi spoke of disease as Yin-Yang affliction. *Zuo Zhuan* records Yi He discussing Six Qi. Ban Gu defined *Yijing* as exploring blood, vessels, meridians, bones, marrow, Yin-Yang, and interior-exterior to determine the root of diseases and life-death distinctions. In Han times, discussions on Yin-Yang were always associated with Huang Di. *Huainanzi* states Huang Di generated Yin-Yang. People respected antiquity and despised the present, so theorists attributed their works to Shennong or Huang Di to gain acceptance. Liu Xiang noted that Yin-Yang and divination books prefixed with "Huangdi" numbered over ten. This proves the *Nei Jing* dialogues between Huang Di and Qi Bo were likely Han dynasty compositions. Modern physicians either force it into the "San Fen" (Three Fens) canon or dismiss it as fake; both are wrong.