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Ancient scales only had units of zhu (铢) and liang (两), without the unit of fen (分). Currently, ten grains of millet are defined as one zhu, six zhu as one fen, four fen as one liang, and sixteen liang as one jin. Although there is a standard regarding the weight of millet seeds, this method has been uniformly used for a long time and should be followed.

Su Gong stated: Ancient scales were double-counted (i.e., one jin equaled two half-jins), which is the system of the Southern scale. Since the Later Han dynasty, one jin was divided into two jins (halved), and one liang into two liangs (halved). Among ancient prescriptions, only those of Zhang Zhongjing have involved modern weighing standards; if ancient scales were used, the amount of water would appear significantly less.

Gao stated: Six zhu equal one fen, which is equivalent to 2.5 qian. Twenty-four zhu equal one liang. What the ancients called three liang corresponds to one liang today; what they called two liang corresponds to 6.5 qian today.

Shizhen stated: When silkworms first spin silk, it is called "hu" (忽); ten hu make one "si" (丝); ten si make one "li" (厘); four li make one "lei" (累, pronounced lei); ten li make one "fen" (分); four lei make one "zi" (字), weighing 2.5 fen; ten lei make one "zhu" (铢), weighing 4 fen; four zi make one "qian" (钱), weighing 10 fen; six zhu make one fen (falling tone), weighing 2.5 qian; four fen make one "liang" (两), weighing 24 zhu; eight liang make one "zi" (锱); two zi make one "jin" (斤); twenty-four liang make one "yi" (镒), equivalent to 1.5 jin or 12 liang in official measures; thirty jin make one "jun" (钧); four jun make one "shi" (石), weighing 120 jin; "a little bit" (shaoxu) mentioned in prescriptions refers to a small amount. Due to differences between ancient and modern systems, one ancient liang can be replaced by one modern qian.

When modern practitioners say "equal parts" (dengfen), they do not mean the unit fen, but rather that the weights of various herbs are identical. This is mostly used for pills and powders.

When a powder prescription mentions "daogui" (刀圭), it refers to one-tenth of a fangcunbi (square-inch spoon), roughly the size of a Sophora japonica seed. A fangcunbi is a square spoon with a side length of one inch, filled until the powder does not fall out. Using the five characters on the edge of a Wuzhu coin to scoop powder, stopping when it does not fall out, constitutes one "cuo" (撮). One cuo equals four daogui (bi is synonymous with chi/spoon).

For medicines measured by sheng (升) and he (合), since herbs vary in density and weight, jin and liang cannot be used; instead, volume measurement with sheng is employed. Ten cuo make one shao (勺), ten shao make one he, and ten he make one sheng. The sheng vessel has an upper diameter of one cun, a lower diameter of 0.6 cun, and a depth of 0.8 cun. When adding powdered medicine, do not press it down.

Shizhen stated: One ancient sheng is equivalent to 2.5 modern he. The origin of measuring vessels starts with gui (圭); four gui make one cuo, ten cuo make one shao, ten shao make one he, ten he make one sheng, ten sheng make one dou, five dou make one hu, and two hu make one shi.

When decoctions, wines, or ointments mention "ju" (咀), it means crushing the weighed herbs to the size of soybeans and blowing away the fine dust. Herbs vary in brittleness, producing varying amounts of dust; nowadays, all are finely chopped like ju.

Su Gong explained: "Ju" implies deliberation and consideration.

Li Shi-zhen explained: "Ju" carries the meaning of tasting, similar to chewing with teeth, breaking the material without turning it into dust. Ancient prescriptions often mention "ju".

Gao stated: "Ju" is an ancient method. In ancient times, without iron blades, people chewed herbs finely, like hemp or bean sizes, before decocting. Nowadays, knives are used for chopping.

When pill prescriptions mention sizes like "fine sesame" (xima), it refers to Sesamum indicum (Huma); they need not be flat, just approximately equivalent. Millet and broomcorn millet are similar. "Large hemp seeds" (damaizi) correspond to three fine sesame seeds. "Hu beans" (hudou) refer to current green mottled beans, corresponding to two large hemp seeds. "Small beans" (xiaodou) refer to current red adzuki beans, corresponding to three large hemp seeds. "Soybeans" (dadou) correspond to two small beans. "Sophora seeds" (wuzi) correspond to two soybeans. "Bullet pellets and egg yolks" correspond to forty Sophora seeds.

Li Shi-zhen noted: Why do modern applications of ancient prescriptions often fail? Because the original intent is unknown. For example, Zhang Zhongjing treated chest bi (thoracic obstruction) with central stagnation and rebellious qi using Zhizhong Tang. Ren Shen (Ginseng Radix), Bai Zhu (Atractylodis Macrocephalae Rhizoma), Gan Jiang (Zingiberis Rhizoma), and Gan Cao (Liquiritiae Radix) totaled twelve liang, boiled in eight sheng of water to yield three sheng. Each dose was one sheng, taken three times daily, until effective. Or made into pills the size of an egg yolk, both yielding miraculous effects. Today, people take pills the size of a waxberry; when the disease persists, they claim the medicine is ineffective. This is not the fault of the medicine, but of the prescriber.

For Ba Dou (Crotonis Fructus) specified by number, due to size variations, remove the heart and skin before weighing; one fen equals sixteen pieces. For Fu Zi (Aconiti Lateralis Radix Praeparata) and Wu Tou (Aconiti Radix), after removing skin, half a liang equals one piece. For Zhi Shi (Aurantii Fructus Immaturus), after removing pith, one fen equals two pieces. For Ju Pi (Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium), one fen equals three pieces. Three dates, regardless of size, equal one liang. One lei of Gan Jiang (Zingiberis Rhizoma) equals one liang.

For Ban Xia (Pinelliae Rhizoma) specified as one sheng, after washing, five liang is standard. Shu Jiao (Zanthoxyli Pericarpium) one sheng equals three liang. Wu Zhu Yu (Evodiae Fructus) one sheng equals five liang. Tu Si Zi (Cuscutae Semen) one sheng equals nine liang. Ting Li Zi (Lepidii Semen) one sheng equals four liang. She Chuang Zi (Cnidii Fructus) one sheng equals 3.5 liang. Di Fu Zi (Kochiae Fructus) one sheng equals four liang. For seeds with variable density/weight that cannot be accurately weighed, a level sheng is standard.

For Gui (Cinnamomi Ramulus) specified as one chi, peeled, half a liang is standard. Gan Cao (Liquiritiae Radix) one chi equals two liang. A bundle of certain grasses equals three liang. A handful equals two liang.

One jin of Mi (Mel) equals seven he. One jin of Zhu Gao (Porci Adipis) equals 1.2 sheng.

Pills and powders must be finely chopped and dried before grinding. Some are ground separately, some together, according to the prescription. Moist herbs like Tian Dong (Asparagi Radix) and Di Huang (Rehmanniae Radix) should have their weight increased, chopped, dried, ground separately, and dried again. In rainy weather, dry them over mild heat, cool, then grind.

Shizhen stated: All herbal and tonic medicines should avoid iron vessels, as metal (Jin) suppresses the growing energy of wood (Mu), damaging the Liver and Kidney. Copper or bamboo knives are preferred. Some also avoid copper; follow appropriate methods. Pills and powders must be processed using bluestone rollers, stone mills, and stone mortars...

When sifting pills and powders, use heavy, fine silk gauze. After sifting each herb, combine them in a mortar and pound hundreds of times until color and texture are uniform. For greasy herbs like Ba Dou, Xing Ren (Armeniacae Semen Amarum), and Hu Ma (Sesami Semen), fry until yellow, grind into paste until no granules are visible under finger inspection, then gradually add to the powder mixture, grind, sift through light gauze, and mix thoroughly.

When decocting soups, use low heat to maintain a gentle boil. Water quantity follows the prescription: generally, twenty liang of herbs require one dou of water, reduced to four sheng. For purgative soups, cook lightly with less water to extract more juice; for tonic soups, cook thoroughly with more water to reduce extraction. Do not let water levels vary arbitrarily. Use new cloth and wooden rods to squeeze the dregs, clarify, cover tightly with paper. Warm soup should not be prepared in iron vessels. Take soup while slightly hot; too hot causes difficulty swallowing, too cold induces vomiting.

Zhi Cai stated: Wine added to decoctions should be added near the end of cooking.

Shizhen stated: Tao Hongjing's description reflects ancient methods. Modern small-scale decoctions use two ou of water per liang of herbs, adjusting up or down. Too much water prevents flavor extraction; too little water consumes medicinal potency. Avoid copper and iron vessels; use silver or clay pots. Clean, seal, and monitor carefully. Control fire intensity; neither too strong nor too weak. Wood charcoal or reed is best for fuel. Use fresh, sweet-tasting water (stream, well, or boiling water) as per prescription details in the Water section. Diaphoretic drugs require strong fire and hot administration. Purgative drugs require strong fire until boiling, then add Xiao Shi (Natrii Sulfas) and Da Huang (Rhei Radix et Rhizoma), simmer, and take warm. Tonics require slow fire and warm administration. Acute cold conditions require strong fire and rapid administration. Cold irritability or summer internal cold requires cold administration (cooled in water).

For medicinal wine infusion, herbs must be finely chopped, placed in raw silk bags, sealed in wine, and filtered after days depending on season. Dregs can be dried, lightly crushed, and re-infused or taken as powder.

Shizhen noted: Other brewing methods exist: boiling herbs with rice, placing herb bags in wine, or fermenting cooked herbs with rice, following specific methods. Another method involves sealing herb bags in jars, boiling in a large pot for a day, burying in soil for seven days to remove "fire toxicity," then drinking.

Dregs from Jianzhong or Shenli tonics can be combined from two doses, boiled with water until exhausted, and drunk, equivalent to one full dose; dregs should be dried first.

Zangqi stated: Musk (She Xiang), Cow Bezoar (Niu Huang), Rhinoceros Horn (Xi Jiao), Antelope Horn (Ling Yang Jiao), Cattail Pollen (Pu Huang), Cinnabar (Dan Sha), Mirabilite (Mang Xiao), and Donkey-hide Gelatin (E Jiao) in decoctions must be finely powdered and stirred into the decoction at the time of administration.

For preparing ointments, initially soak in vinegar (Ku Jiu) until moist, without excess liquid, covered tightly. "One shi" means one week (from morning to next morning). Some last only one night. Boiling ointments requires "three ups and three downs" to release heat and extract flavors. Bring to a rolling boil, then let settle. For Scallion White (Xie Bai), look for slight browning at ends. For Angelica Dahurica (Bai Zhi) and Aconite (Fu Zi), look for slight yellow color. Strain through new cloth; dregs can be boiled in wine. Massage ointment dregs can be applied topically. Arsenic sulfide (Xiong Huang), Cinnabar (Zhu Sha), and Musk (She Xiang) in ointments must be separately ground...

Shizhen stated: For ointments treating carbuncles or rheumatism, soak herbs in oil for three days, then fry until herbs are withered. Filter through silk. While hot, add Minium (Huang Dan), Lead Carbonate (Hu Fen), or Litharge (Mi Tuo Seng). Perform "three ups and three downs" until drops form beads in water without dispersing. Pour into containers, soak in water for three days to remove fire toxicity. If using Pine Resin (Song Zhi), fry until stringy, pour into water, stretch hundreds of times. Strictly control fire intensity. Add Cinnabar, Realgar, Borneol, Musk, Dragon's Blood, Frankincense, and Myrrh only when the ointment base is ready. Minium, Lead Carbonate, and Litharge must be water-ground or fired on tiles. Pine resin must be refined multiple times.

Wax in pills should be melted and mixed with a little honey before combining with herbs.

Gao stated: Wax in pills protects the medicinal aroma and potency, allowing passage through the diaphragm to reach organs. Honey would cause premature dispersion upon swallowing, preventing efficacy. With toxic drugs, honey could be harmful, contrary to the purpose of using wax.

Honey used in pills must be first heated, skimmed of foam, until slightly yellow, ensuring long-term preservation.

Lei Xiao stated: Refining honey yields 12.5 liang per jin; insufficient or excessive heat renders it unusable. For pill preparation, use only honey for honey-based pills, maltose for maltose-based, sugar for sugar-based; do not mix, or it will cause diarrhea.