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thereby facilitating the joints and pivot mechanisms. Therefore, all the pivot mechanisms of the human body are governed by this (the brain/spirit). Western medicine depicts the genital organs in great detail. However, these organs are possessed by everyone; why is detailed drawing necessary? It is merely because Western medicine employs dissection as a treatment method. The space here is limited, and without detailed mapping, one cannot operate. In contrast, the methods of *Neijing* (The Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon) and Zhang Zhongjing rely on the spiritual efficacy of acupuncture and herbs, rendering crude surgical incisions unnecessary; thus, diagrams are not required. Moreover, although Western medicine has drawn them, they ultimately do not understand the subtle principles governing the genital organs.

The throat and pharynx (Yan Hou) serve as the pathway for water and food.
The throat and pharynx are the upper opening of the Stomach, located behind the larynx, and primarily govern the intake of water and food. Therefore, treating diseases of the pharynx focuses on the Stomach. If pathology resides in the pharynx, water and food cannot descend.

The larynx (Hou Long) is the passage through which Qi ascends and descends.
The upper connection to the Lung is called the larynx, located anterior to the pharynx, primarily governing respiratory Qi. If Qi flow is obstructed, voice becomes impaired; this constitutes pathology of the larynx.
[Larynx Diagram]
[Epiglottis Diagram]
Western medicine calls it the trachea. Branching from below the lungs, it enters the Kidney and penetrates into the Dantian. It governs the inhalation of celestial Yang Qi to steam the fluids in the Bladder, transforming them into Qi that ascends out. It follows the abdomen to the chest, returns from the lung coat (pleura/lung surface) to the trachea. Qi exits from the front and enters from the back, all passing through the trachea; hence it is said to be the place where Qi ascends and descends.

The epiglottis is the gate of sound.
The epiglottis is located on both sides of the larynx and pharynx; it can open and close. When eating, it closes to cover the larynx; when producing sound, it opens. Hence it is called the gate of sound, the door of the larynx. This should be attributed to the Lung.
Western medicine names it the voice tube. Anteriorly is the epiglottis, posteriorly is the arytenoid cartilage. Both sides have mucosa, lined internally with fascia, opening and closing to produce sound. Surrounding it are dozens of small nuclei secreting mucus to lubricate the voice tube. There are also superior and inferior muscles; the inferior muscle is lax, the superior is tense, contracting and relaxing to produce sound. *Neijing* states: "When wind-cold invades the epiglottis, sudden aphonia occurs." This is precisely due to the inability of these muscles to contract and relax properly.

The lips are the fan of sound.
Only when the lips open and close can speech be clear and distinct; hence they are called the fan of sound. The lips belong to the Spleen; therefore, there is a syndrome of "Spleen struck by Wind" causing flaccid lips and loss of voice.

The tongue is the mechanism of sound.
The tongue is the sprout of the Heart. Speech is the external expression of the Heart's mind; thus, the tongue can distinguish sounds and explore their origins. Upon life... [text missing], later it can produce sound.
[Tongue Diagram]
By "mechanism," we refer to its extension, retraction, and rotation. Sound is merely the resonance emanating from the larynx, whereas tone is divided into the five notes (Gong, Shang, Jue, Zhi, Yu), distinguished by the tongue. Kidney fluids ascend to the Lianquan and Ying acupoints, flowing out onto the tongue, making it slippery and the voice clear. The tongue belongs to Heart Fire, relying on Kidney Water for nourishment. The Kidney meridians connect to the tongue, enabling its movement.
[Uvula Diagram]

The uvula is the key to sound.
Above the larynx hangs a fleshy appendage, commonly known as the "Emperor's Ding" (uvula). Sound emerges from here; hence it is called the key to sound. This belongs to the Lung.
I have observed mute individuals who lack this "Emperor's Ding." Presumably, because the epiglottis remains wide open without a closure mechanism, Qi cannot be contained; scattered Qi fails to form sound. Commonly called the "swallowing tongue," it is said to cover the larynx upon swallowing to prevent food and drink from entering internally. However, even without the uvula, food and drink do not enter the trachea. Thus, the uvula truly governs sound and acts as a critical key. Located at the entrance of the trachea, it should be attributed to the Lung.

The nasopharynx (Hang Sang) is the outlet for distributing Qi.
The nasopharynx is the posterior part of the hard palate. Qi distributes from here: exiting the mouth as saliva, or exiting the nose as nasal discharge. Hence it is called the outlet for distributing Qi.

The hyoid bone is driven by Shen (Spirit) and Qi, governing the movement of the tongue.
The hyoid bone is at the root of the tongue. The Heart stores Shen and opens into the tongue; thus, the hyoid bone is driven by it, serving as the mechanism for tongue movement. These sections detail the principles of sound production in the throat, pharynx, mouth, and tongue, from which treatment methods can be derived.
[Hyoid Bone Diagram]
This diagram from Western medicine is named the cricoid cartilage, located below the epiglottis, facing it. There is also a half-cartilage named the aryepiglottic cartilage, connected to the tongue root, governing tongue movement. The cartilages are connected by membranes and pulled by tendons, being highly agile to serve the commands of Heart Shen and Lung Qi. Shen and Qi should be discussed separately.

The essence of the Five Zang and Six Fu organs all ascends to pour into the eyes.
Previously, it was stated that the Liver opens into the eyes, referring to the general principle. Here, stating that the essence of all Five Zang and Six Fu organs ascends to the eyes provides a more detailed analysis. The Liver meridian enters the brain and connects to the eye system, hence opening into the eyes. Regarding how the Five Zang and Six Fu connect to the eyes, Western medicine attributes this to "brain nerves" connecting to various organs. Based on this, the essence of each organ travels along the nerves to ascend and pour into the eyes.

The essence of Bone manifests as the pupil.
The pupil belongs to the Kidney, hence its color is extremely black. Since the Kidney governs bones, it is said that the extremity of bone manifests as the pupil. Pathologies of the pupil are mostly due to Kidney deficiency.

The essence of Sinew manifests as the black eye (cornea/iris).
The Liver governs sinews. The essence of the Liver ascends to form the black part of the eye. Ophthalmology texts call this the Wind Wheel, also because the Liver governs Wind. Treating the black eye should focus primarily on the Liver.

The essence of Blood manifests as the collaterals (blood vessels/conjunctival vessels).
Outside the white of the eye, red flesh wraps around and knots at the inner canthus; this is the collateral. It is the essence of Blood, belonging to the Heart. Any formation of blood nebulae (pterygium) should be treated by addressing Heart Blood.

The essence of Qi manifests as the white eye (sclera).
Qi belongs to the Lung. Diseases of the white eye are mostly due to Damp-Heat affecting the Lung.

The essence of Muscle manifests as the constraints (eyelids).
Constraints refer to the eyelids, surrounded by the Yangming Stomach meridian, formed by the aggregation of the Spleen meridian's muscle essence. Swelling, ulceration, dryness, and itching are all due to Wind-Damp-Heat in the Spleen meridian.

The essence of Wrapped Bone, Sinew, Qi, and Blood, combined with the vessels to form the eye system, ascends to belong to the back of the head and emerges from the neck.
This summarizes that the eye system enters the brain and connects to the back of the head, showing that the essence of the Five Zang organs fully enters the eyes via the brain, revealing the path for treating eye diseases. Generally, treating the Qi Wheel, Blood Wheel, and Flesh Wheel allows medicinal Qi to reach the brain via the throat and nasopharynx, a route that is most direct and easy to treat. Treating the black eye (Wind Wheel) must follow the Liver meridian up to the brain, a slightly deeper route. Treating the pupil (Water Wheel) must proceed via the Kidney and Du Meridian up to the brain, a deeper route that is harder to treat.
[Eye Diagram]

Western medicine distinguishes between coats, sinews, muscles, and fractures, detailing them thoroughly. However, failing to attribute them to specific Zang-Fu organs means failing to determine treatment methods. Only the *Neijing*'s five-layer eye theory—Skin as Flesh Wheel, Red Collaterals as Blood Wheel, White Eye as Qi Wheel, Black Eye as Wind Wheel, Pupil as Water Wheel—assigns meaning to the Five Zang. Furthermore, since the eye system enters the brain and passes through the nape, the pupils face backward. Acupuncture at the back of the head is possible, although Western medicine has not explored this.

All meridians belong to the eyes.
The Taiyang meridian ends at the inner canthus; the Shaoyang meridian ends at the outer canthus; the Yangming meridian surrounds the orbit and ends at Chengqi below the eye; the Jueyin meridian enters the brain and intersects with the eye system; the Kidney's Du Meridian enters the brain and connects to the eye system; the branch of the Hand-Shaoyin Heart meridian ascends along the throat to connect to the eye system. Only the Taiyin meridian does not ascend to the eyes. Hence, it is said that all meridians belong to the eyes.

All marrow belongs to the brain.
Western medicine claims that marrow in the limbs differs from brain marrow, unaware that all actually originate from the brain marrow and scatter throughout the bones. Each joint has sinews, vessels, and fatty membranes connecting them; thus, marrow in the bones is mixed with fatty membranes and blood filaments. In reality, all marrow belongs to the brain, and brain marrow is generated by the Kidney.

All sinews belong to the joints.
Joints refer to bone joints. Bones belong to Kidney Water, and sinews belong to Liver Wood. Water generates Wood; thus, sinews grow between bone joints, and sinews serve the bones. Pathologies of bone joints are attributed to sinews. Western medicine details bones and marrow but neglects sinews, attributing motion solely to "brain qi" rather than sinews. Yet without sinews, bones would not connect, nor could they move.

All blood belongs to the Heart.
There is a theory that the Liver stores blood and the Spleen controls it, yet circulation occurs in the Spleen, storage in the Liver, and generation and circulation reside in the Heart. Observing Western vascular diagrams confirms that all blood belongs to the Heart. (See section on Heart generating Blood).

All Qi belongs to the Lung.
The source of Qi is in the Kidney (see section on Bladder, Tian Gui, Ying and Wei). Here it says it belongs to the Lung because the Lung is the master controller of Qi. Thus, the Lung governs regulation, managing the entry and exit of Kidney Qi, regulating Liver Qi to prevent rebellion, regulating Spleen Qi to prevent leakage, and regulating Heart Qi to prevent hyperactivity. When Lung Qi is regulated, the Qi of all other organs is regulated.

Human Blood, Qi, Jing (Essence), and Shen (Spirit) are what sustain life and complete the activities of Xing (Nature) and Ming (Life Destiny).
Human perception is Xing (Nature); human life and death is Ming (Destiny). Xing resides in the Heart, hence the character contains "Heart." Ming resides in the Kidney, hence the Kidney system is called the Gate of Life (Ming Men). With this Xing and Ming, humans can live. What sustains life and completes Xing and Ming relies on Jing and Shen. Shen is stored in the Heart, the seat of Xing. Jing is stored in the Kidney, the seat of Ming. Investigating the origin of Jing reveals it is the transformation of Qi. Investigating the origin of Shen reveals it is the function of Blood. Thus, Blood and Qi are discussed first, then Jing and Shen, extending ultimately to Xing and Ming. Chinese commentators often gloss over this; how much less so the Westerners who cling to physical traces? (See sections on Heart and Kidney).

Meridians are used to circulate Blood and Qi, nourish Yin and Yang, moisten sinews and bones, and facilitate joints.
*Neijing* calls them Mai (Vessels/Meridians); Western medicine calls them tubes. They are essentially the same. Western medicine details the tubes but fails to name the meridians, ignoring that the Twelve Regular Meridians and Eight Extraordinary Vessels reach the whole body to circulate Blood and Qi, ensuring Yin within and Yang outside, covering sinews, bones, and joints. Treating disease according to meridians yields natural efficacy. Since meridians circulate Qi and Blood, they cannot be referred to solely as blood vessels. According to Western medicine, there are vessel sheaths, consisting of membranes or fascia wrapping vessels, return tubes, and nerves. The meridians described in *Neijing* are not entirely visible to Western observation. For example, the Du Meridian governs Qi; the Ren Meridian governs Blood. These two are clearly different. How can one rigidly apply Western theories to measure them?

Wei Qi (Defensive Qi) warms the fenrou (intermuscular spaces), fills the skin, thickens the couli (pores/cuticle), and controls the opening and closing of pores.
Wei Qi was detailed in the Ying and Wei section. "Fenrou" refers to the distinction between internal red meat and external white meat. Wei Qi moves from interior to exterior, first emerging from fenrou to warm it, then reaching the skin, the outermost layer. Yang Qi fills from inside out to protect the hair and skin. This is the function of Wei Qi. (See Bladder, Ying and Wei section). Couli lies outside fenrou and inside the skin, referring to fatty membranes with wrinkles. Originating internally from the Sanjiao (Triple Burner), it is the pathway for Wei Qi. Abundant Qi makes couli thick. Wei Qi travels in Yang during the day, causing eyes to open and wakefulness, with Qi reaching the exterior to resist wind and cold. It travels in Yin at night, causing eyes to close and sleep, with Qi converging internally; thus, one must cover oneself to protect Yang, fearing external cold when inside. These are proofs of Wei Qi controlling opening and closing. (See Ying and Wei, Taiyang sections). Western medicine is unaware of this.
[Wei Fenrou Diagram]
This is the Western diagram of sweat glands and nuclei. Sweat glands are either hidden in couli or beneath it, coiled like screws penetrating to the skin surface to excrete sweat. However, Western medicine does not know the source of sweat. It truly arises from Qi transformation in the Bladder, connecting via the Sanjiao network to reach the skin and hair. In summer, drinking more water leads to more sweating and less urination. This shows water is discharged from the skin, not flowing down to the Bladder, proving that sweat originates in the Bladder and is excreted by Wei Qi.
[Skin/Hair Diagram]
This is the microscopic enlargement of skin and hair by Westerners. Near the hair root are oil nuclei, formed by blood vessels scattering into membranes. There are also sweat nuclei and tubes attached to hair. Hair is essentially the surplus of Blood, generated by Qi. Blood transforms into Qi, following Wei Qi to the couli before emerging. Thus, examining the hair root reveals only oil and water, not blood.

Zhi (Will) and Yi (Intent) are used to control Spirit, gather Hun and Po, adapt to cold and heat, and harmonize joy and anger.
This emphasizes the Spleen and Kidney again. One governs congenital constitution, the other postnatal constitution; together they are the root of the body. The Kidney stores Zhi. A settled Zhi can control Kidney Essence and Heart Shen, preventing reckless movement. A settled Zhi can gather Liver Hun and Lung Po, preventing reckless dispersion. The Spleen stores Yi, governing thought, allowing adaptation to cold and heat and harmony of joy and anger. Are Zhi and Yi not important? Western medicine attributes perception solely to the brain, failing to distinguish the Seven Emotions or differentiate Xing and Ming. While their concept of Will/Intent aligns with China's, they do not understand the functions governed by Zhi and Yi.

Therefore, when Blood is harmonious, meridians circulate, nourishing Yin and Yang, resulting in strong sinews and bones and smooth joints.
If women's meridians do not circulate, menstruation becomes irregular, and the whole body aches. Although men lack menstruation, they also suffer from non-circulating meridians. Internal and external Yin and Yang, and the Twelve Meridians, are all nourished and covered by Blood. Sinews and bones are irrigated by Blood. Thus, only when Blood is harmonious can it circulate and nourish. Only when Blood is harmonious can sinews and bones be strong and joints smooth. Opposite conditions require regulating Blood. This discusses Ying Blood. Western medicine has vascular diagrams but only draws efferent vessels, not afferent ones, and fails to distinguish the Twelve Meridians, offering little therapeutic value, hence omitted. They omit venous return because distinguishing inflow and outflow is complex. Given this difficulty, it is no wonder they ignore the theory of meridians.
[Blood Vessel Diagram]
This Western vascular diagram shows only efferent blood vessels, not veins. Clinging to this, Westerners refute the existence of China's Twelve Meridians and Eight Extraordinary Vessels. *Yi Lin Gai Cuo* also claims meridians are unsubstantiated, not realizing that dissecting corpses prevents the identification of acupoints. Moreover, meridians are not merely blood vessels. *Neijing* states some meridians have abundant Blood and little Qi, others abundant Qi and little Blood, proving meridians encompass both Qi and Blood and cannot be equated with blood or air tubes. Western medicine speaks of self-healing nerves varying by organ, wrapping sinews, bones, vessels, or airways, dispersing or converging. This seems akin to the meridians in *Neijing*, but unfortunately, Westerners do not read Chinese well and have not studied *Neijing* deeply. Besides, the Ren Meridian specifically governs Blood, and the Du Meridian specifically governs Qi; how can blood vessels equate to meridians?

When Wei Qi is harmonious, fenrou is unobstructed, skin is moist, and couli is dense.
This discusses Wei Qi, detailed above and in the Bladder section.

When Zhi and Yi are harmonious, Spirit is focused, Hun and Po are gathered, regret and anger do not arise, and the Five Zang are not invaded by pathogens.
Harmonious Zhi means the congenital Kidney is healthy; harmonious Yi means the postnatal Spleen is healthy, yielding these effects. (See above).

When cold and heat are appropriate, the Six Fu transform grain, wind-bi does not occur, meridians are unobstructed, and limbs and joints are peaceful.
This section links with the previous, clarifying the meaning of Spleen storing Yi and adapting to cold and heat. Appropriate cold and heat lead to harmonious Spleen Qi, allowing the Six Fu to transform water and grain. The Spleen governs muscles, preventing wind-bi syndromes. The Spleen controls Blood and governs limbs/joints; when harmonious, they are unobstructed and peaceful.

The beginning of the volume detailed the Zang and Fu organs. Anything not discussed there is supplemented here. The Qi transformation and morphology of the human body are now complete. Although Western medicine performs dissections, they do not match the subtlety of *Neijing*.