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The superior drugs, numbering one hundred and twenty, serve as the Sovereign (Jun, sovereign drug) ingredients. They primarily nourish life to correspond with Heaven. They are non-toxic; taking them in large doses or for a long time does not harm the body. Those who wish to lighten the body, augment Qi (vital energy), prevent aging, and prolong longevity should base their use on the Superior Class (Shangpin).

The medium drugs, numbering one hundred and twenty, serve as the Minister (Chen, minister drug) ingredients. They primarily nurture nature to correspond with Humanity. They include both toxic and non-toxic substances, requiring careful judgment of suitability. Those who wish to suppress diseases and tonify deficiency and emaciation should base their use on the Medium Class (Zhongpin).

The inferior drugs, numbering one hundred and twenty-five, serve as the Assistant (Zuo, assistant drug) and Envoy (Shi, envoy drug) ingredients. They primarily treat diseases to correspond with Earth. They are highly toxic and must not be taken for long periods. Those who wish to eliminate cold-heat pathogenic factors, break up accumulations and masses, and cure illnesses should base their use on the Inferior Class (Xiapin).

The three classes total three hundred and sixty-five types, corresponding to the three hundred and sixty-five degrees of the heavens. Each degree corresponds to one day, thereby completing one year. Doubling this number results in seven hundred and thirty names.

Tao Hongjing stated: "Upon examining the properties of the Superior Class drugs today, they can also dispel diseases, but their action is mild and concentrated, lacking rapid effects. Regular consumption over years will surely yield great benefits. Once the disease is cured, life is extended. This reflects the benevolent nurturing of Heaven, hence it is said to 'correspond with Heaven.' The number one hundred and twenty corresponds to the months of Yin, Mao, Chen, and Si, mirroring the time when all things grow and flourish. The properties of the Medium Class drugs involve deeper therapeutic actions for diseases, with slightly less emphasis on lightening the body. They remove afflictions quickly but extend lifespan slowly. Humans possess temperament and nature, hence it is said to 'correspond with Humanity.' The number one hundred and twenty corresponds to the months of Wu, Wei, Shen, and You, mirroring the time when all things mature. The properties of the Inferior Class drugs focus exclusively on aggressive attack. Their toxic and fierce Qi damages the harmonious balance and must not be taken regularly; usage should cease once the illness is cured. Earth's nature is receptive and killing, hence it is said to 'correspond with Earth.' The number one hundred and twenty-five corresponds to the months of Xu, Hai, Zi, and Chou, mirroring the time when all things wither and store, including the surplus numbers of leap months. Whether used singly or in combination, one should follow the patient's condition and practice integration, without adhering rigidly to one side."

Zhang Yuxi stated: "In Tao’s classification of Materia Medica: Shennong used vermilion ink, while the *Bielu* (Additional Records) used black ink. The *Benjing* (Original Classic) contains only three hundred and sixty-five drugs. The current text mentions doubling the number to seven hundred and thirty, implying the inclusion of the *Bielu*'s supplementary items. Thus, this section is likely text from the *Bielu*, which became confused due to long-term transmission. This has led later generations to collect such materials and claim they are not works of Shennong, largely due to this reason."

Li Shizhen stated: "In the *Shennong Bencao Jing*, drugs are divided into three classes. In Tao’s *Bielu*, the number of drugs was doubled, and categories were established. Scholars of the Tang and Song dynasties greatly expanded and supplemented them, sometimes removing items. Although there were distinctions between vermilion and black ink, and the names of the three classes remained, the reality had become chaotic. Sometimes one drug was split into several entries, or two different substances were listed in the same place; trees were placed in the herb section, or insects in the wood section; water and earth dwellings mixed, insects and fish intermingled; Zishui and Mian streams were indistinguishable, jade and kingfisher feathers were confused; names were hard to trace, how could realities be found? Now, I integrate the drugs of ancient and modern scholars into sixteen sections. Dividing where necessary, merging where appropriate, moving where needed, adding where required. I do not distinguish the three classes, but follow each section, grouping objects by category, with details following the main outline. Each drug bears a general name to establish the main outline; major headings list flavor and indications to establish the sub-outline; annotations explain names, collect explanations, and elucidate discoveries to detail the specifics; doubts are辨析 (analyzed), errors corrected, and appendices added to complete the structure; simple prescriptions are attached at the end to detail applications. Under the main outline, the source of the Bencao and the three classes are noted to trace origins; under the sub-outline, names from various schools are noted to verify facts; annotations record authors' names so that historical sources are not lost and judgments on various schools have a归宿 (归宿/standard). Although old chapters seem analyzed, branches and veins appear clearer. I dare not overstep, but truly for ease of search."

Drugs have Sovereign, Minister, Assistant, and Envoy roles to interact and regulate each other. Harmonization should ideally involve one Sovereign, two Ministers, three Assistants, and five Envoys, or alternatively one Sovereign, three Ministers, and nine Assistants/Envoys.

Tao Hongjing stated: "Using drugs is like establishing human hierarchy. If there are too many Sovereigns and few Ministers, or too many Ministers and few Assistants, the energetic force will be insufficient. However, checking immortal scriptures and secular prescriptions, this is not always the case. Generally, drugs for nourishing life act as Sovereigns, those for nurturing nature as Ministers, and those for treating disease as Assistants, relying on their inherent nature and further adjusting accordingly. Among the Sovereigns of the Superior Class, there are still distinctions of nobility and baseness; similarly among Ministers and Assistants. Thus, Dongchong (Ophiopogon) and Yuanzhi (Polygala) have distinct Sovereign-Minister relationships; Gancao (Licorice) is the 'State Elder,' Dahuang (Rhubarb) is the 'General,' clarifying their superiority and inferiority, belonging to different ranks."

Qibo stated: "In prescription formulation, the Sovereign treats the primary disease, the Minister assists the Sovereign, and the Envoy responds to the Minister. This refers to functional roles, not the Superior, Medium, and Inferior classes. This clarifies the distinction between good and bad qualities."

Zhang Yuansu stated: "The Sovereign ingredient is most abundant, the Minister is next, and the Assistant is least. When drugs address the same syndrome, they are used in equal parts. Some say the drug with the strongest power serves as the Sovereign."

Li Gao stated: "Whatever drugs are used, flavor and Qi (energy/nature) are primary. Tonification and purgation depend on flavor, changing Qi according to the season. The drug treating the main disease is the Sovereign. For example, in treating wind, Fangfeng (Saposhnikovia) is the Sovereign; in treating cold, Fuzi (Aconite) is the Sovereign; in treating dampness, Fangji (Stephania) is the Sovereign; in treating upper Jiao heat, Huangqin (Scutellaria) is the Sovereign; in treating middle Jiao heat, Huanglian (Coptis) is the Sovereign. If other syndromes are present, Assistant and Envoy drugs are used to treat them separately. This is the key to formulating prescriptions. The theory of Superior Class drugs as Sovereigns in the Bencao follows appropriateness."

Drugs have Yin-Yang combinations, mother-son, and brother relationships.

Han Baosheng stated: "All things in heaven and earth have Yin-Yang and size, each with color categories and symbolic images. Therefore, feathered creatures are born of Yang and belong to Yin; scaled and shelled creatures are born of Yin and belong to Yang. Kongqing (Azurite) corresponds to Wood, hence its green color and affinity for the Liver; Zhusha (Cinnabar) corresponds to Fire, hence its red color and affinity for the Heart; Yunmu (Muscovite) corresponds to Metal, hence its white color and affinity for the Lung; Cihuang (Orpiment) corresponds to Earth, hence its yellow color and affinity for the Spleen; Cishi (Magnetite) corresponds to Water, hence its black color and affinity for the Kidney. Others are deduced by this analogy. Mother-son relationships are exemplified by Yupi (Elm Bark) as mother and Houpo (Magnolia Bark) as son."

Roots, stems, flowers, fruits, sprouts, bark, flesh, and bones.

Zhang Yuansu stated: "For drugs whose roots are in the soil, the upper half is where Qi and meridians ascend, identified as the root where sprouts emerge; the lower half is where Qi and meridians descend, identified as the tip/shoot entering the soil. For diseases in the Middle and Upper Jiao, use the root; for diseases in the Lower Jiao, use the tip. Roots ascend, tips descend. The upper half of the human body is Heaven's Yang, use the head/top part; the Middle Jiao uses the body/middle part; the lower half is Earth's Yin, use the tip/bottom part. This describes categories and mimics forms."

Li Shizhen stated: "Some herbs use only one part, such as Qianghuo (Notopterygium) root, Mutong (Akebia) stem, Kuandonghua (Coltsfoot) flower, Tingli (Descurainia) seed, Baijiangcao (Patrinia) sprout, Daqing (Isatis) leaf, Dafupi (Citrus peel), Yuliren (Bush Cherry) kernel, Baimupi (Cypress bark), Chenxiang (Agarwood) knot, Sumu (Sappanwood) muscle, Hutonglei (Tallow Tree resin), and Longnao (Borneol) gum. Some use combined parts, such as Yuanzhi (Polygala) and Xiaocao (Oldenlandia), Shuqi (Periploca) and Changshan (Dichroa). Some use the whole plant, such as Gouqi (Goji) and Ganju (Chrysanthemum). Some use one substance for two purposes, such as Danggui (Angelica) head and tail, Mahuang (Ephedra) root and nodes, Chi/Fu Ling (Poria) red/white, Niuxi (Achyranthes) sprout in spring/summer and root in autumn/winter. Feathered, scaled, jade, stone, water, and fire categories often follow similar patterns and cannot be judged by a single rule."

There are single agents, mutually enhancing pairs, mutually assisting pairs, mutually fearing pairs, mutually repelling pairs, mutually opposing pairs, and mutually detoxifying pairs. These seven interactions (Seven Emotions) must be considered together. Use mutually enhancing and mutually assisting pairs for best results; avoid mutually repelling and mutually opposing pairs. If toxicity needs control, mutually fearing and mutually detoxifying pairs can be used; otherwise, do not combine them.

Han Baosheng stated: "Among the three hundred and sixty-five drugs in the *Benjing*: Single agents, seventy-one; Mutually enhancing, twelve; Mutually assisting, ninety; Mutually fearing, seventy-eight; Mutually repelling, sixty; Mutually opposing, eighteen; Mutually detoxifying, thirty-six. These seven interactions must be considered together."

Tao Hongjing stated: "Examining old prescriptions, there are cases of using mutually repelling or opposing drugs. For example, Xianfang Gancao Wan contains Fangji and Xixin; common formula Yushi San uses Gualou and Ganjiang. Taking them causes no harm. There may be controlling agents involved, like Kou Qian and Jia Yi assisting Han, or Cheng Yaojin and Zhou Tong assisting Wu. Since the main intent is correct, private conflicts do not cause harm. Nevertheless, it is better not to use them if possible. Banxia (Pinellia) is toxic and requires Shengjiang (Fresh Ginger) to utilize their mutual fear and control."

He also stated: "Mutual opposition causes deeper harm than mutual repulsion. Mutual repulsion means one dislikes the other, but I hold no resentment, like Niuhuang (Calculus Bovis) disliking Longgu (Fossil Bone), yet Longgu becomes better with Niuhuang due to control. Mutual opposition means mutual enmity, inevitably failing to harmonize. Painters note that Cihuang (Orpiment) and Hufen (Lead White) are close but darken each other out of jealousy, proving this point."

Li Shizhen stated: "Drugs have seven interactions. Single agents are used alone without auxiliaries. Mutually enhancing drugs are inseparable similar types, such as Renshen (Ginseng) and Gancao (Licorice), Huangbai (Phellodendron) and Zhimu (Anemarrhena). Mutually assisting drugs are my assistants. Mutually repelling drugs deprive my efficacy. Mutually fearing drugs are controlled by the other. Mutually opposing drugs do not combine. Mutually detoxifying drugs control the other's toxicity. Ancient formulas often used mutually repelling and opposing drugs. Using mutually enhancing and assisting drugs together is the 'Emperor's Way'; using mutually fearing and detoxifying drugs together is the 'King's Way'; using mutually repelling and opposing drugs together is the 'Hegemon's Way.' There are constants and variables, depending on the practitioner's understanding."

Drugs have Sour, Salty, Sweet, Bitter, and Pungent Five Flavors, and Cold, Hot, Warm, and Cool Four Natures. Kou Zongshi stated: "When referring to 'Qi,' it usually means fragrance or stench. Cold, Hot, Warm, and Cool refer to the drug's Nature (Xing). For instance, Bai'e Zhi (White Goose Fat) is cold in nature, not cold in Qi. The Four Natures here refer to Fragrance, Stench, Fishy, and Musky odors. Garlic, Asafetida, Abalone, and sweaty socks have a Stench; Chicken, Fish, Duck, and Snake have a Fishy odor; Fox, White Horse Penis, and Renzhongbai (Urine Deposit) have a Musky odor; Chenxiang (Agarwood), Tanxiang (Sandalwood), Longnao (Borneol), and Shexiang (Musk) have a Fragrance. Thus, the character 'Qi' should be changed to 'Nature' for accuracy."

Li Shizhen stated: "Kou's view that Cold, Hot, Warm, and Cool are Natures, and Fragrance, Stench, Fishy, and Musky are Qi, aligns with the *Book of Rites*. However, since the *Suwen*, only 'Flavor and Qi' have been discussed, making change difficult. I shall follow the old convention."

Wang Haogu stated: "There are Five Flavors and Four Natures. Within the Five Flavors, each has four natures. For example, Pungent includes Shigao (Gypsum) which is Cold, Guizhi (Cinnamon Twig) and Fuzi (Aconite) which are Hot, Banxia (Pinellia) which is Warm, and Bohe (Mint) which is Cool. Qi belongs to Heaven; Flavor belongs to Earth. Warm and Hot are Heaven's Yang; Cold and Cool are Heaven's Yin; Pungent and Sweet are Earth's Yang; Salty and Bitter are Earth's Yin. The Bencao lists Five Flavors but omits Bland, and Four Natures but omits Cool; instead listing Warm, Great Warm, Hot, Great Hot, Cold, Great Cold, Slightly Cold, Neutral, Slight Toxicity, Great Toxicity, Toxic, and Non-toxic. Why? Bland attaches to Sweet; Slightly Cold is equivalent to Cool."

Regarding Toxic and Non-toxic.

Qibo stated: "Diseases vary in duration; prescriptions vary in size. Whether toxic or non-toxic, standard regulations apply. For drugs with Great Toxicity, treat until six-tenths of the disease is gone; for Common Toxicity, seven-tenths; for Slight Toxicity, eight-tenths; for Non-toxic drugs, nine-tenths. Use grains, meats, fruits, and vegetables to complete the nourishment. Do not exceed these limits, lest you injure healthy Qi."

He also stated: "Those tolerant of toxicity use strong drugs; those intolerant use mild drugs."

Wang Bing stated: "If drug Qi is excessively biased, organ Qi becomes severely deficient. Hence, stop after removing six, seven, eight, or nine-tenths."

Drying in shade or sun, harvesting times, and raw/cooked states. Tao Hongjing stated: "Harvesting times are recorded from the beginning of the Yin month (first month of the lunar calendar), dating from the Han Taichu era. Root drugs are mostly harvested in the second and eighth months. Early spring, sap begins to sprout, leaves and branches are not full, so the energy is pure and concentrated. By autumn, leaves and branches wither, and sap flows downward. Generally, spring harvesting should be early, autumn late. Flowers, fruits, stems, and leaves are harvested according to maturity. Years vary in early or late timing, not strictly following the original text. 'Drying in shade' means drying within the Yin phases of the Six Jia cycles. According to Dunjia method, in the Jiazi cycle, the Yin phase is Guiyou, placing the drug in the You direction. This is not necessarily literal, but simply drying in shaded areas. If dual-use is possible, it is even better."

Sun Simiao stated: "Ancient physicians understood harvesting, drying in shade or sun according to method, and used drugs based on local origin, thus curing eight or nine out of ten cases. Modern physicians do not know harvesting seasons or origins, new vs. old, empty vs. solid, thus curing fewer than five out of ten."

Ma Zhi stated: "Currently, shading drying is often detrimental. For example, Lurong (Deer Antler) rots if shaded dried; fire-dried is better. Herbal roots and sprouts harvested before September should be sun-dried; those harvested after October are better shaded-dried."

Li Shizhen stated: "Production varies north and south; solar terms vary early and late; root and sprout harvesting differs; manufacturing methods differ. Market Dihuang (Rehmannia) is boiled in pots; Dahuang (Rhubarb) is baked by fire; Songhuang (Pine Pollen) mixed with Puhuang (Catkin); Zhangnao (Camphor) mixed with Longnao (Borneol); these are all counterfeit losses of proper preparation. Kong Zhiyue said: Animals and plants acquire different natures from their environment; Spring and Autumn changes bring different energies. Leaving native soil makes quality same but effect different; improper harvesting makes the object correct but the timing wrong. Names and realities become false, cold and hot properties often erroneous. Applying this to rulers and fathers is the greatest rebellion."

Jiamo stated: "Medicine trade is mostly in markets. Proverb: Sellers have two eyes; users have one eye; patients have none. Not fake fossil bone called dead dragon bone, alfalfa root as earth rhubarb, musk mixed with lychee pit and huoxiang, eggplant leaves boiled with banxia as yanshusu, salted pine tips as roucongrong, caoren冒充 caodoukou, xidai replacing nanmuxiang, boiling guangjiao with buckwheat to make ejiao, boiling chicken eggs and fish otoliths to make amber, pipal stamens replacing kuandonghua, donkey shin bones as tiger bones, pine resin mixed with qilinjie, foreign saltpeter mixed with borneol. Deceitful tricks abound, enduring humiliation, even causing death, blaming the medication. This is a major issue, not ordinary, requiring utmost caution."

Local origins, authenticity, age, and freshness each have methods.

Tao Hongjing stated: "All drugs have specific growing regions. Before Qin and Han, these were states. County names now are additions by later people. Since Jiangdong, minor miscellaneous drugs often come from nearby paths, lacking the potency and properties of their native regions. If Jing and Yi do not communicate, using Liyang Danggui and Qiantang Sanjian entirely would not be comparable. Thus, treatment effectiveness lags behind ancients, partly due to this. Moreover, doctors do not recognize drugs, listening only to merchants; merchants do not investigate, delegating to collectors. Collectors pass down practices, authenticity and quality are unpredictable. Thus, Zhongru is boiled in vinegar to whiten, Xixin soaked in water to straighten, Huangmi steamed with honey to sweeten, Danggui sprinkled with wine to moisten, Wugong painted red, Piaoxiao glued to mulberry branches, Huichuang passed off as Miwu, Qimai passed off as Renshen. These are not factual. When compounding, peeling and cleaning are not measured. Yuanzhi and Mudan lose half; Dihuang and Mendong lose one-third. Peeling and removing hearts do not match weights, failing to obtain sufficient amounts. On days nobles compound medicine, servants secretly swap good drugs, never detected. Treating disease this way makes efficacy hard to expect."

Kou Zongshi stated: "Drugs must be chosen according to suitable land for full potency and reliable use. Such as Shangdang Renshen, Chuanxi Danggui, Qizhou Banxia, Huazhou Xixin. Dongbitu (East Wall Soil), Dongyuehui (Winter Ash), Bantianhe (Half-sky River Water), Re Tang (Hot Water), Jiangshui (Fermented Rice Water) are trivial items but widely used, which has rationale. Without investigating principles, treating disease wastes effort."

Li Gao stated: "Tao Hongjing's Bencao says Yelangdu, Zhishi, Ju Pi, Banxia, Mahuang, and Wuzhuyu are best aged; others should be fresh and refined. However, Dahuang, Muzei, Jingjie, Yuanhua, and Huaihua should also be aged, not just the 'Six Aged Drugs.' Drug flavors require refinement. In June of Gengchen year, Xu Bowei, aged fifty-four, had weak middle Qi. After eight or nine days of Shanghan (Cold Damage) with high fever, the doctor used cold purgatives, and he ate pears, injuring spleen and stomach with cold. Limbs turned cold, fainting occurred, palpitations below heart, excessive belching, face green-yellow, eyes unwilling to open. Pulse had stops, returning intermittently, a Jie Mai (Knotted Pulse). Used Zhang Zhongjing's Fumai Tang plus Renshen and Rougui to urgently support healthy Qi; Shengdi reduced by half to protect Yang Qi. After two doses, disease did not retreat. Re-diagnosing, pulse and symptoms matched, thinking perhaps the drug lacked refinement or was stale? Bought new drugs and took them; symptoms halved, then resolved. All grasses, woods, and insects have production places; roots, leaves, flowers, and fruits have harvesting times. Losing place alters nature and flavor slightly; losing time makes Qi and flavor incomplete. Furthermore, new vs. old, fine vs. coarse differ. If not selected and used, ineffectiveness is due to drug error, not new prescription. Correct."

See later for annual drug refinement.

Drug properties suit pills, powders, water decoctions, wine maceration, paste frying. Some suit multiple forms; some cannot enter decoctions or wines. Follow drug properties, do not violate them.

Tao Hongjing stated: "Diseases suit pills, powders, decoctions, wines, or pastes. Combine references, observe disease source, and formulate accordingly."

Hua Tuo stated: "Diseases suit decoctions, pills, powders, purgatives, emetics, or diaphoretics. Decoctions cleanse organs, open meridians, regulate Yin-Yang. Pills expel wind-cold, break hardness, promote appetite. Powders dispel wind-cold-summerheat-dampness, scatter internal stagnation, benefit intestines and stomach. Purging when needed but not done causes abdominal distension and confusion. Sweating when needed but not done closes pores, leading to suffocation and death. Vomiting when needed but not done causes chest binding, wheezing, inability to eat/drink, and death."

Li Gao stated: "Decoction (Tang) sweeps away major diseases. Powder (San) disperses acute diseases. Pill (Wan) acts slowly, treating gently. Chu (chewing) is an ancient method. Ancient times had no iron blades, so drugs were chewed."

For treating highest diseases, add wine decoction; for removing dampness, use Shengjiang (Fresh Ginger); for tonifying Yuan Qi, use Dazao (Jujube); for dispersing wind-cold, use Congbai (Scallion White); for removing phlegm above diaphragm, use Honey. Fine powders do not follow meridians, only removing stomach and organ accumulations. Strong aroma/flavor mixed with white water; weak aroma/flavor decocted and taken with dregs. For lower body diseases, pills are large, smooth, and round; for middle Jiao, smaller; for upper Jiao, very small. Thick flour paste allows slow dissolution reaching lower Jiao; wine or vinegar for gathering or dispersing intent; if containing Banxia or Nanxing, use ginger juice thin paste for easy dissolution; water-soaked overnight steamed cake dissolves easily; drop-water pills dissolve easily; refined honey pills allow slow dissolution and Qi circulation through meridians; wax pills are hard to dissolve, providing gradual effect or protecting spleen/stomach from toxic drugs.