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The treatment methods in the *Neijing* (Inner Canon) are detailed regarding acupuncture but sparse regarding herbal medicine. However, the general principles of drug flavors and properties discussed in the *Neijing* are already comprehensive. If one can apply these principles by analogy, one will find them inexhaustible.

The generation of Yin essence fundamentally lies in the five flavors; yet, the injury to the five palaces of Yin (Liver, Heart, Spleen, Lung, Kidney) also stems from the five flavors. Excessive sourness causes Liver Qi to overflow, leading to the exhaustion of Spleen Qi; excessive saltiness causes labor in the bone Qi, shortening of muscles, and suppression of Heart Qi; excess sweetness leads to asthma, chest fullness, black complexion, and imbalance of Kidney Qi; excessive bitterness causes the Spleen Qi to fail in moistening and the Stomach Qi to become thick and turbid; excessive pungency causes the sinews and vessels to relax and deteriorate, and the spirit to be depleted (*Suwen: Shengqi Tongtian Lun*).

The Liver dislikes constraint and urgently requires sweet flavors to relax it; the Heart dislikes laxity and urgently requires sour flavors to astringe it; the Spleen dislikes dampness and urgently requires bitter flavors to dry it; the Lung dislikes rebellious Qi ascending and urgently requires bitter flavors to drain it downward; the Kidney dislikes dryness and urgently requires pungent flavors to moisten it, by opening the interstices, promoting fluid distribution, and unblocking Qi flow (*Suwen: Zangqi Fashi Lun*).

The Liver desires dispersion and urgently requires pungent flavors to disperse it; using pungent is tonifying, using sour is draining. The Heart desires softness and urgently requires salty flavors to soften it; using salty is tonifying, using sweet is draining. The Spleen desires relaxation and urgently requires sweet flavors to relax it; using bitter is draining, using sweet is tonifying. The Lung desires consolidation and urgently requires sour flavors to astringe it; using sour is tonifying, using pungent is draining. The Kidney desires firmness and urgently requires bitter flavors to firm it; using bitter is tonifying, using salty is draining (*ibid.*).

Pungent enters Qi; those with Qi disorders should not consume too much pungent. Salty enters Blood; those with Blood disorders should not consume too much salty. Bitter enters Bone; those with Bone disorders should not consume too much bitter. Sweet enters Flesh; those with Flesh disorders should not consume too much sweet. Sour enters Sinews; those with Sinew disorders should not consume too much sour (*Suwen: Xuanming Wuqi*). Excessive salty causes blood coagulation and changes in complexion; excessive bitter causes withered skin and fallen hair; excessive pungent causes tight sinews and withered nails; excessive sour causes calloused flesh and peeling lips; excessive sweet causes bone pain and falling hair (*Suwen: Wuzang Shengcheng*).

The Liver color is green; it suits sweet foods such as glutinous rice, beef, dates, and okra. The Heart color is red; it suits sour foods such as adzuki beans, dog meat, plums, and leeks. The Lung color is white; it suits bitter foods such as wheat, mutton, apricots, and wild onions. The Spleen color is yellow; it suits salty foods such as soybeans, pork, chestnuts, and broad bean leaves. The Kidney color is black; it suits pungent foods such as yellow millet, chicken, peaches, and scallions. Pungent disperses, sour astringes, sweet relaxes, firms bitter, and softens salty. Toxic drugs attack pathogenic factors; grains nourish; fruits assist; meats benefit; vegetables fill. This replenishes and benefits Jing and Qi (*Suwen: Zangqi Fashi Lun*).

A prescription with one Sovereign herb and two Ministers is called an "Odd" (Ji) formula. A prescription with two Sovereigns and four Ministers is called an "Even" (Ou) formula. Two Sovereigns and three Ministers is Odd; two Sovereigns and six Ministers is Even. For nearby diseases, use Odd formulas; for distant diseases, use Even formulas. For sweating treatments, do not use Odd; for purgative treatments, do not use Even. To tonify the Upper or treat upper body diseases, the prescription should be slow/gentle; to tonify the Lower or treat lower body diseases, the prescription should be urgent/strong. Urgent prescriptions have strong flavors and substances; slow prescriptions have weak flavors and substances. Nearby diseases with Odd/Even combinations have small doses; distant diseases with Odd/Even combinations have large doses. If the Odd formula fails, use the Even formula; this is called a "Heavy Formula" (Chong Fang). If the Even formula fails, use contrary assistance (Fan Zuo) to achieve the effect; this is what is meant by cold, heat, warm, and cool contrary assistance, following the disease nature (*Suwen: Zhi Zhen Yao Da Lun*).

One Sovereign and two Ministers constitute a small prescription; one Sovereign, three Ministers, and five Assistants constitute a medium prescription; one Sovereign, three Ministers, and nine Assistants constitute a large prescription. High [pathogens] are suppressed; low [pathogens] are lifted; excess is reduced; deficiency is tonified. Cold is treated with Heat; Heat is treated with Cold. Minor conditions are treated oppositely (Ni); major conditions are treated similarly (Cong). Asthenia is warmed; stagnation is dispersed; urgency is relaxed; scattering is gathered; loss is benefited; fright is calmed. Opposite treatment is Zheng Zhi (Standard Treatment); similar treatment is Fan Zhi (Contrary Treatment). Heat uses Cold but administered warm; Cold uses Heat but administered cool; Warmth uses Clearing but administered cold; Coolness uses Warming but administered hot (*ibid.*).

When treating with highly toxic drugs, stop when 60% of the disease is gone; with commonly toxic drugs, stop at 70%; with slightly toxic drugs, stop at 80%; with non-toxic drugs, stop at 90%. Use grains, meats, fruits, and vegetables for dietary therapy to complete recovery, ensuring no over-treatment injures healthy Qi. If the disease persists, repeat the method according to regulations (*ibid.*).

Do not offend Heat in hot seasons, nor Cold in cold seasons. For exterior-releasing treatments, do not avoid Heat; for interior-purging treatments, do not avoid Cold. Wood stagnation is reached/dispersed; Fire stagnation is vented; Earth stagnation is seized/cleared; Metal stagnation is drained/released; Water stagnation is broken/subdued (*Suwen: Liuyuan Zhengji Dalun*). There is a disease characterized by heart and abdominal fullness, where one cannot eat dinner if they ate breakfast, named Drum Distension (Guzhang), treated with Ji Shi Li (Chicken Dropping Yeast Liquid); one dose brings improvement, two doses bring cure. There is a disease with chest and hypochondriac distension, obstructing eating, preceded by smelling fishy odors, clear nasal discharge, spitting blood, cold limbs, dizziness, and frequent bleeding from bowels/bladder, named Blood Dryness (Xueku). This results from massive blood loss in youth or sexual activity while drunk, causing Qi exhaustion and Liver injury, leading to scanty or absent menstruation. Treat with Oumai Gu (Cuttlefish Bone) and Qianhu (Qianhu root) combined into pills the size of small beans, taken after meals with Abalone juice to benefit the injured Middle Jiao and Liver (*Suwen: Fuzhong Lun*).

The following texts may not be authentic classics, but the formulas are ancient and effective, so they are recorded.

There is a disease of anger and mania arising from Yang. Yang Qi is suddenly obstructed and difficult to resolve, hence the anger, named Yang Jue. Food enters Yin and generates Yang Qi; thus, depriving food cures it. Drink Sheng Tie Luo (Raw Iron Filings Decoction) to rapidly descend Qi. There is a disease with fever, lethargy, profuse sweating like bathing, aversion to wind, and shortness of breath, named Wine Wind (Jiu Feng), treated with Ze Xie (Alisma), Bai Zhu (Atractylodes Macrocephala Rhizome), and Mi Xian (Elaphrium) mixed and taken after meals (*Suwen: Bingneng Lun*).

There is a disease with sweet taste in the mouth, caused by the overflow of Five Qi, named Pi Dan (Spleen Heat). Such individuals often eat sweet and fatty foods. Fatty foods cause internal heat; sweet foods cause middle Jiao fullness. Thus, Qi overflows upward, transforming into Xiao Ke (Wasting-Thirst). Treat with Lan Cao (Eupatorium/Patchouli) to remove stale Qi (*Suwen: Qibing Lun*).

For needle-treatment of Cold Bi, use herbal moxibustion/warming: 20 jin of aged wine, 1 sheng of Shu Jiao (Sichuan Pepper), 1 jin of Gan Jiang (Dried Ginger), 1 jin of Gui Xin (Cinnamon Heart). Chop these four ingredients and soak in wine. Add 1 jin of cotton wadding and 4 zhang of fine white cloth into the wine. Place the container in horse manure, seal and coat tightly to prevent leakage. After five days and nights, take out the cloth and wadding, dry them, and re-soak until all juices are extracted. Each soaking must wait for specific days before drying. Mix the dregs with the wadding and wrap in cloth to make pads, 6-7 chi long, making 6-7 pads. Roast the pads over live mulberry charcoal and apply to the punctured sites of Cold Bi, allowing heat to penetrate to the lesion. Re-heat when cool, repeating 30 times. Wipe sweat with the pad 30 times. Enter the room immediately and avoid wind. Every needle insertion must be followed by warming. This is called "Inserting Heat," and Cold Bi can be cured (*Suwen: Shouyao Gangrou*).

Diseases of the Foot Yangming Meridian Sinews present with sudden facial deviation. Spasm prevents eye closure; heat causes flaccidity and inability to close eyes. Cold in cheek sinews causes spasm and pulling of the mouth; heat causes flaccidity and deviation. Treat by applying Ma Gao (Horse Fat) to the spasmodic side, and mixing Bai Jiu (White Wine) with Gui Zhi (Cinnamon Twig) powder to apply to the flaccid side. Use a mulberry hook to pull the mouth, place over a mulberry charcoal pit, adjusting height to sitting position. Moxa/warm the spasmodic cheek with horse fat, drink good wine, eat roasted meat. Non-drinkers should force themselves to do this and massage three times. Treatment involves burning needles (Fanzhen) and rapid needling (Jiesi), stopping when Deqi is achieved (*Lingshu: Jingjin*).

Insomnia occurs when Wei Qi travels in Yang and cannot enter Yin. Traveling in Yang makes Yang abundant; failing to enter Yin makes Yin deficient, hence insomnia. Administer Ban Xia Tang (Pinellia Decoction) once. When Yin and Yang connect, sleep comes immediately. The formula uses water from 1000 li away, stirred 10,000 times, taking 5 sheng of clear water. Boil over reed fire, add Shu Mi (Millet) 1 sheng and Zhi Ban Xia (Prepared Pinellia) 5 he, simmer slowly to 1.5 sheng. Strain and drink 1 small cup, three times daily, gradually increasing until effective. New cases sleep instantly; chronic cases sleep after three doses (*Lingshu: Xieke*).

Appendix: Analysis of Yunqi (Luck and Qi)

Years of Jia and Ji are governed by Earth Yun. Years of Yi and Geng are governed by Metal Yun. Years of Bing and Xin are governed by Water Yun. Years of Ding and Ren are governed by Wood Yun. Years of Wu and Gui are governed by Fire Yun (*Suwen: Tianyuanji Dalun*). Heaven has six as its rhythm; Earth has five as its system. Jun Huo (Monarch Fire) is defined by name; Xiang Huo (Minister Fire) is defined by position (*ibid.*). Years of Zi and Wu see Shao Yin above; Chou and Wei see Tai Yin above; Yin and Shen see Shao Yang above; Mao and You see Yang Ming above; Chen and Xu see Tai Yang above; Si and Hai see Jue Yin above (*ibid.*, "Shang Jian" is also known as Si Tian). Above Jue Yin, Wind Qi governs; above Shao Yin, Heat Qi governs; above Tai Yin, Dampness Qi governs; above Shao Yang, Minister Fire Qi governs; above Yang Ming, Dryness Qi governs; above Tai Yang, Cold Qi governs (*ibid.*).

(Commentary by Shen Youpeng): To correct errors, one must first correct names. Once names are correct, errors disappear. For instance, San Yin San Yang are names of meridians in the human body. Those running on the Yang aspects of hands and feet are called Hand and Foot Three Yang; those on the Yin aspects are called Hand and Foot Three Yin. They connect internally to Zang-Fu organs, having form and substance. They are not like empty theories of old/young Yin/Yang where Li Qi (Principle/Qi) can be matched everywhere. Furthermore, in Heaven it is Wind, on Earth it is Wood, in the Zang it is Liver; in Heaven it is Heat, on Earth it is Fire, in the Zang it is Heart; in Heaven it is Dampness, on Earth it is Earth, in the Zang it is Spleen; in Heaven it is Dryness, on Earth it is Metal, in the Zang it is Lung; in Heaven it is Cold, on Earth it is Water, in the Zang it is Kidney. This is the profound truth of medical classics, cited even in Yunqi chapters. It is not merely because the Five Elements connect Heaven, Earth, and Man that there are immutable rules? Now, saying "Above Shao Yin, Heat Qi governs" highlights the Heart but omits the Kidney. Saying "Above Tai Yin, Dampness Qi governs" highlights the Spleen but omits the Lung. If Yang Ming Dryness refers to the Large Intestine, it speaks of the Lung; if Tai Yang Cold refers to the Bladder, it speaks of the Kidney. If so, why does the discussion of Five Elements use Zang theory for Wind, Heat, Dampness, but Fu theory for Cold and Dryness? This is merely forcing a match with San Yin San Yang. Moreover, adding a second Fire outside the Five Elements, claiming it has Yin and Yang types, ignores why Metal, Wood, Water, and Earth do not have Yin and Yang types. Also, the "Zhong Jian" (Middle Manifestation) line clearly refers to Zang-Fu exterior-interior relationships, yet contains errors. Shao Yin and Tai Yang are exterior-interior pairs (Heart-Small Intestine, Kidney-Bladder). The text says Tai Yang's Zhong Jian is Shao Yin, and Shao Yin's Zhong Jian is Tai Yang, implying Heart and Bladder are exterior-interior. Such confusion hardly qualifies as classic text. Yet, famous doctors since antiquity, except Bian Que and Zhang Zhongjing, all cite it. Therefore, I record and analyze it.

If Jue Yin is Shang Jian (Si Tian), Left is Shao Yin, Right is Tai Yang. If Shao Yin is Shang Jian, Left is Tai Yin, Right is Jue Yin. If Tai Yin is Shang Jian, Left is Shao Yang, Right is Shao Yin. If Shao Yang is Shang Jian, Left is Yang Ming, Right is Tai Yin. If Yang Ming is Shang Jian, Left is Tai Yang, Right is Shao Yang. If Tai Yang is Shang Jian, Left is Jue Yin, Right is Yang Ming (*Suwen: Wuyunxing Dalun*, Left/Right Jian Qi of Si Tian). If Jue Yin is Up, then Shao Yang is Down, Left Yang Ming, Right Tai Yin. If Shao Yin is Up, then Yang Ming is Down, Left Tai Yang, Right Shao Yang. If Tai Yin is Up, then Tai Yang is Down, Left Jue Yin, Right Yang Ming. If Shao Yang is Up, then Jue Yin is Down, Left Shao Yin, Right Tai Yang. If Yang Ming is Up, then Shao Yin is Down, Left Tai Yin, Right Jue Yin. If Tai Yang is Up, then Tai Yin is Down, Left Shao Yang, Right Shao Yin (*ibid.*, Wu Yun Down is Zai Quan, which also has Left/Right Jian Qi). Right of Shao Yang is governed by Yang Ming; Right of Yang Ming by Tai Yang; Right of Tai Yang by Jue Yin; Right of Jue Yin by Shao Yin; Right of Shao Yin by Tai Yin; Right of Tai Yin by Shao Yang. This is called Biao (Mark/Manifestation) of Qi (*Suwen: Liuzhi Dajun*).

Above Shao Yang, Fire Qi governs, Zhong Jian is Jue Yin. Above Yang Ming, Dryness Qi governs, Zhong Jian is Tai Yin. Above Tai Yang, Cold Qi governs, Zhong Jian is Shao Yin. Above Jue Yin, Wind Qi governs, Zhong Jian is Shao Yang. Above Shao Yin, Heat Qi governs, Zhong Jian is Tai Yang. Above Tai Yin, Dampness Qi governs, Zhong Jian is Yang Ming. This is Ben (Root). Below Ben is Zhong Jian; below Zhong Jian is Biao of Qi (*ibid.*).

Above Tianshu, Heaven Qi governs; below Tianshu, Earth Qi governs. This is the division of Qi interaction, where Human Qi follows (*ibid.*).

Matching Heaven is Tian Fu (Heavenly符); following the Year is Sui Zhi (Year Direct); the combination of three is Zhi (Treatment) (*Suwen: Tianyuanji Dalun*).

Wood Yun meets Mao year; Fire Yun meets Wu year; Earth Yun meets Four Seasons years (Chen, Xu, Chou, Wei); Metal Yun meets You year; Water Yun meets Zi year. This is Sui Hui (Year Assembly), the peace of Qi (*Suwen: Liuzhi Dajun*, Sui Hui is Sui Zhi).

In Earth Yun years, Tai Yin is Shang Jian. In Fire Yun years, Shao Yang and Shao Yin are Shang Jian. In Metal Yun years, Yang Ming is Shang Jian. In Wood Yun years, Jue Yin is Shang Jian. In Water Yun years, Tai Yang is Shang Jian. This is Tian Zhi Hui (Heavenly Meeting) (*ibid.*, Tian Hui is Tian Fu).

Tian Fu combined with Sui Hui is Taiyi Tianfu (*ibid.*).

Tian Fu is the Executor; Sui Hui is the Order-Giver; Taiyi Tianfu is the Noble Person. Illness from the Executor is fast and dangerous; from the Order-Giver, slow and persistent; from the Noble Person, violent and fatal (*ibid.*).

Jue Yin Si Tian transforms as Wind; Shao Yin Si Tian as Heat; Tai Yin Si Tian as Dampness; Shao Yang Si Tian as Fire; Yang Ming Si Tian as Dryness; Tai Yang Si Tian as Cold. Diseases are named according to the Zang position occupied. Earth transformations follow the same pattern; Jian Qi are all alike. Those governing left and right are Jian Qi; those governing the year are Sui Qi; those governing steps are Jian Qi Bu Bu (*Suwen: Zhi Zhen Yao Da Lun*).

If one treats diseases this way, checking the calendar suffices; why bother with pulse diagnosis?

Xianming (Spring Equinox) right is the position of Jun Huo. Retreating one step from Jun Huo (Grain Full) is governed by Xiang Huo. One more step (Great Heat) is governed by Earth Qi. One more step (Autumn Equinox) by Metal Qi. One more step (Light Snow) by Water Qi. One more step (Great Cold) by Wood Qi. One more step returns to Jun Huo. Below Xiang Huo, Water Qi succeeds; below Water, Earth Qi succeeds; below Earth, Wind Qi succeeds; below Wind, Metal Qi succeeds; below Metal, Fire Qi succeeds; below Jun Huo, Yin Jing (Yuan Essence) succeeds. Excess causes harm; succession brings restraint (*Suwen: Liuzhi Dajun*).

According to Mutual Generation: Wood generates Fire, Fire generates Earth, Earth generates Metal, Metal generates Water, Water generates Wood again. According to Mutual Restriction: Wood restricts Earth, Earth restricts Water, Water restricts Fire, Fire restricts Metal, Metal restricts Wood again. All form a continuous circle, natural to Heaven and Earth. Since one Fire was split into two, turning Five Elements into Six, the circle is broken. Amidst the rotation of Five Elements, suddenly "Below Jun Huo, Yin Jing succeeds" is added. What succeeds Yin Jing? The chapter *Liuyuan Zhengji* arranges years by Jiazi, resembling astrology/almanacs, too complex to record fully. Briefly, excluding Tian Fu and Sui Zhi, the discussion of Wu Yun has three: Da Yun (Great Luck), Zhu Yun (Principal Luck), Ke Yun (Guest Luck). Da Yun, also called Zhong Yun, governs the year's Qi. Jia/Ji Earth is Gong; Yi/Geng Metal is Shang; Bing/Xin Water is Yu; Ding/Ren Wood is Jue; Wu/Gui Fire is Zhi. Yang years are Tai (Greater); Yin years are Shao (Less). To understand Zhu Yun and Ke Yun, one must know the five steps of Wu Yun. Great Cold begins Step 1 Jue (Wood); 13 days after Spring Equinox begins Step 2 Zhi (Fire); 10 days after Grain in Ear begins Step 3 Gong (Earth); 7 days after End of Heat begins Step 4 Shang (Metal); 4 days after Start of Winter begins Step 5 Yu (Water). Yang years are Tai, Yin years are Shao. For example, Jia is a Yang year, Earth Yun Tai Gong is Principal. Generating Tai/Shao, Tai Jue starts Step 1, Shao Zhi Step 2, Tai Gong Step 3, Shao Shang Step 4, Tai Yu Step 5. Ji is a Yin year, Earth Yun Shao Gong is Principal. Shao Jue starts Step 1, Tai Zhi Step 2, Shao Gong Step 3, Tai Shang Step 4, Shao Yu Step 5. This is Zhu Yun. For Ke Yun, Jia (Yang) Tai Gong is Principal. Add Tai Gong to Step 1, Shao Shang to Step 2, Tai Yu to Step 3, Shao Jue to Step 4, Tai Zhi to Step 5. This is Ke Yun.

In Bei Zheng (North Polarity) years, if Shao Yin is Zai Quan, Cun Kou pulse does not respond; if Jue Yin is Zai Quan, Right does not respond; if Tai Yin is Zai Quan, Left does not respond. In Nan Zheng (South Polarity) years, if Shao Yin is Si Tian, Cun Kou does not respond; if Jue Yin is Si Tian, Right does not respond; if Tai Yin is Si Tian, Left does not respond. In Bei Zheng years, if San Yin is Down, Cun does not respond; if San Yin is Up, Chi does not respond. In Nan Zheng years, if San Yin is Tian, Cun does not respond; if San Yin is Quan, Chi does not respond. Left and Right are the same (*Suwen: Zhi Zhen Yao Da Lun*). For Qi in Quan: Wind rampant inside, treat with Pungent-Cool, assist with Bitter-Sweet, relax with Sweet, disperse with Pungent. Heat rampant inside, treat with Salty-Cold, assist with Sweet-Bitter, astringe with Sour, vent with Bitter. Dampness rampant inside, treat with Bitter-Hot, assist with Sour-Light, dry with Bitter, drain with Light. Fire rampant inside, treat with Salty-Cold, assist with Bitter-Pungent, astringe with Sour, vent with Bitter. Dryness rampant inside, treat with Bitter-Warm, assist with Sweet-Pungent, purge with Bitter. Cold rampant inside, treat with Sweet-Hot, assist with Bitter-Pungent, drain with Salty, moisten with Pungent, firm with Bitter (*ibid.*).